Religion in the Modern World

Keith Ward is well-known for his many studies of religions and their relationship to science. He was Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford and has been President of the World Congress of Faiths. In this penetrating book he celebrates pluralism and diversity in the light of developments in religion since the European Enlightenment. The book is in six parts: the problem of religious pluralism, the perennial philosophy, the critical turn, the pluralist hypothesis, Catholicism and pluralism, and Buddhism and Christianity in dialogue. Many of the chapters informatively cover the thought of individual thinkers such as Durkheim, Aldous Huxley, Frithjof Schuon, Huston Smith, Kant, Rudolf Bultmann, Schleiermacher, Hegel, Troeltsch, John Hick, Karl Rahner, Hans Kung and Raimon Panikkar.

Keith argues that ‘in order to be rationally sustainable, religions must ally with the best modern science and with textual criticism.’ Ancient moral rules must be adapted to new circumstances and their overall view must be global and historically conscious. Moreover, ‘conceptual descriptions of ultimate reality are not free of local and changing linguistic and cultural influences.’ (p. 5) Other key factors to take into consideration are implicit patriarchy, racism and hierarchy. Myths, symbols and their interpretation are subject to historical development within changing cultural contexts; here Keith distinguishes between three factors: the doctrinal in terms of truth claims, the experiential, and the behavioural in relation to institutions and rituals.

He is critical of the perennial philosophy in a series of nine chapters on the basis that Reality in itself is unknowable, and he distinguishes between the ultimates of the transcendent selfless void and that of union with the beloved as the supreme good. This is a fair point, though for me the non-dual experience of gnosis represents a direct knowing beyond the conceptual, also explained by Schuon. I do agree with Keith that there is a dogmatic exclusivist claim to the perennial philosophy, and that in terms of religious traditions in general, ‘spiritual convergence is a reasonable hope’ while ‘the acceptance of difference will be necessary as long as human knowledge remains partial and inadequate’ as we seek a fuller understanding (p. 49) that presupposes evolutionary creative emergence within the different streams he distinguishes.

The third part considers the impact of science, the questioning of authority and a more critical approach to sacred texts written during earlier periods and therefore framed ‘in the context of an obsolete and mistaken worldview.’ The discussion here is thorough, as one would expect, also covering the extension of moral concern, morality and religion, and the rise of pluralism. I found the chapter on Hegel’s understanding of Christianity in relation to his philosophy of Spirit of particular interest whereby humans are only potentially good but can evolve towards becoming a ‘vehicle of the self-expression of Spirit in its supreme goodness.’ (p. 108) Keith shares Hegel’s idealism whereby ‘the spiritual is more real than the material… Mind is the basis of cosmic reality’ (p. 111) The historical work of Ernst Troeltsch based on critical scrutiny, analogy and correlation was new to me and Keith concludes that the section by arguing that a revised understanding of religion is necessary for the reasons he analyses. (p. 120)

The next two sections discuss pluralism in general and in relation to five Catholic theologians. This involves cultural lenses, the relationship between truth, experience and religious language, paths to salvation, and ethical goals common across traditions tending towards universalism. Here Keith returns to the status of truth-claims where exclusivism and pluralism lie at opposite ends of a spectrum that also correlates with intolerance and toleration. The various Catholic theologians discussed expound a delicate balance across a range of views, including Kung’s argument that the Church should move from ‘ecclesiocentrism’ to theocentrism. Peter Phan focuses on salvation rather than truth and the need to follow one’s conscience. Christians must ‘show by example what a God of self-giving Love is like’ exemplified in the life of Jesus Christ in serving the world in Love.

None of us stands in neutral position, since we are all historically and culturally located in terms of values and beliefs. Keith concludes that ‘religion is still an important and widespread feature of human life’ within the three dimensions of doctrine, experience and practice he previously identified. These represent a core set of ideals, a causal power that can realise these, and a goal embodying their fuller realisation. For him, the ideal is self-giving and self-realising Love focused on the person of Jesus, the causal power is the Holy Spirit, and the goal is a community of loving and creative individuals. This makes him committed, open and tolerant, surely an admirable and well-articulated stance. This brilliant analysis can help readers arrive at their own form of understanding while appreciating the unavoidable formative influences of culture and history.