Primates and Philosophers

This fascinating book by one of the leading primatologists examines the biological foundations of morality as it grows out of primate sociality while remaining within a framework of random natural selection. After an editorial introduction, Frans de Waal provides the main essay, which is followed by four commentaries and a response by de Waal. His case is based on extensive field observation and takes the broad view that humans are basically good, corresponding to the theology of Matthew Fox of original blessing as opposed to the orthodox view of original sin. The biological equivalent of this is what de Waal calls the Veneer Theory espoused by TH Huxley, Richard Dawkins and others and expressed philosophically by Thomas Hobbes: that we are basically selfish and that altruism is a veneer. It becomes apparent from the commentaries that this thesis is somewhat overstated, but it does capture an important point set out in a table on page 22.

De Waal acknowledges the pioneering contributions of Kropotkin's Mutual Aid and the work of Edward Westermarck. He sees empathy as an evolutionary mechanism found in primates and favouring the survival of both individuals and the group. This is in the first instance empathy as a form of emotional contagion, but can in humans develop into sympathy and of course a much more complex moral system where we aspire to expand the circle of morality beyond our immediate kin. In philosophy, these ideas were developed by Francis Hutcheson and Adam Smith in the 18th century. In his comment, Peter Singer distinguishes between the proposition that human nature is inherently social and shares patterns of behaviour with other social mammals and the idea, which he does not defend, of human ethics deriving entirely from nature and social mammals. In the final part, de Waal modulates his view and provides a useful table of three levels of morality, comprising moral sentiments, social pressure, and judgement and reasoning, while continuing to advance his case that human morality elaborates upon pre-existing biological tendencies. This is an informative and accessible discussion to an important topic.